Improve BarycentricData class

[codygunton]

These comments have been left in Barretenberg:

/* IMPROVEMENT(Cody): This could or should be improved in various ways. In no particular order:
   1) Edge cases are not considered. One non-use case situation (I forget which) leads to a segfault.
   2) This could all be constexpr.
   3) Precomputing for all possible size pairs is probably feasible and might be a better solution than instantiating
   many instances separately. Then perhaps we could infer input type to `extend`.
   4) There should be more thorough testing of this class in isolation. */

This goes in the nice-to-have bin for now.

[nishatkoti]

Addressed as part of PR #20585.